Grand theory - what are “grand theories” and how should I use them in my research?
Grand theory, what is it all about? What are grand theories? How should you use them in your research?
Grand theory refers to big, broad ideas that try to explain how society works as a whole, going beyond specific situations, focusing on the general rules or principles that shape social life overall. They’re about answering fundamental questions around how societies work, change and maintain order.
In other words, grand theories are like trying to understand the big picture of how society ticks along, why things stay the same or change, and what keeps everything running smoothly.
In this blogpost, we’re exploring them in more detail.
If we’ve not met before, hi, I’m Dr Elizabeth Yardley and I help PhD students get out of their own way and finish their doctorates. Theory, especially grand theory, can leave PhD students feeling really confused, so, let’s demystify it and figure out how you can use it in your own PhD research.
What is grand theory?
So, first up, let’s expand on the explanation of grand theory I gave just now.
These theories look at the big picture, like how entire societies are organised or how large-scale social changes happen over time. For example, grand theories might explore why some countries are wealthy while others remain poor, or how social institutions like family and education maintain order in society.
They’re zoomed out, they’re big picture, they’re hovering above society and asking, “Okay, how is this all working - or not working?”.
They’re not in the weeds of everyday life. They don’t study individuals, they study groups, organisations, social institutions.
Examples of grand theory
Some of the most well-known grand theories in social science include:
Structural Functionalism
This theory, developed by Talcott Parsons, views society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote stability and social order - kind of like the organs of a human body or the parts of an engine. It emphasises the importance of social institutions (such as family, education, and religion) in maintaining societal equilibrium.
Conflict Theories
Conflict theories, like Marxism, focus on the role of power, inequality, and conflict in shaping society. They argue that social structures and institutions are tools used by dominant groups to maintain their power and control over resources. This is a bit like how the rules of a game are often set by the people who always seem to win, making sure they stay on top.
Critical Theory
Critical theory, which emerged from the Frankfurt School, critiques and seeks to transform society by highlighting power structures, ideologies, and the role of culture in maintaining systems of domination and oppression. Kind of like someone pointing out how a magician's tricks work, so you can see through the illusion and understand what's really going on.
Feminist Theory
Feminist theory seeks to understand and address gender inequalities in society. It examines how gender, power, and social structures intersect, and it critiques traditional social science for its male-centered biases. Feminist theory is broad and diverse, with different strands focusing on various aspects of gender relations, but collectively, it can be considered a grand theory for its critique of societal norms.
How to use grand theories in your research
Grand theories are important in social science because they help researchers understand complex social issues. They give you a big-picture view that can shape how you approach your research, influencing the questions you ask and the methods you use to find answers.
However, it's important to recognise that grand theories are not without their limitations. Because they are so broad, they may oversimplify or overlook the nuances and complexities of specific social situations. Additionally, they may be less directly applicable to empirical research, particularly when dealing with specific, localised social issues.
As a PhD student, it's essential to understand how to engage with grand theories in a way that enhances, rather than hinders, your research. Here are some tips on how to do that:
Take the time to learn about them – get to know the key concepts and assumptions of various grand theories. This will give you a sense of the different perspectives available and how they approach the study of society.
Contextualise your research - use grand theories to frame your research within a broader context. For example, if you're studying educational inequality, you might draw on Conflict Theory to explore how power dynamics and resource distribution shape educational outcomes.
Be critical and selective - not all grand theories will be equally useful for your research. Be critical in selecting which theories to engage with, and don't be afraid to challenge their assumptions. Consider how well a grand theory aligns with your research questions and whether it helps you explain the specific phenomena you're studying.
Combine with mid-range theories. Grand theories can be powerful when combined with more specific, mid-range theories. Mid-range theories focus on specific aspects of social life (such as organisational behavior, social networks, or family dynamics) and can help bridge the gap between the broad scope of grand theories and the detailed analysis of empirical research. I’m going to explain more about mid range theories shortly so keep reading.
Avoid overgeneralisation - one of the main critiques of grand theories is their tendency to overgeneralise. When applying a grand theory to your research, be mindful of its limitations and avoid making sweeping statements that may not hold true in specific contexts.
Levels of theory in social science
To better understand where grand theories fit in, it’s helpful to think about the different levels of theory in social science:
So, let’s use an example project: how teachers manage the roll-out of a new education policy.
Grand theories
In our example, we might look at Conflict Theory to understand how power dynamics between policymakers, administrators, and teachers might influence the implementation of new education policies, with a focus on potential inequalities or tensions that arise.
Mid-range theories
These theories are more directly applicable to empirical research than Grand Theories, offering detailed explanations of particular aspects of social life but they’re still a little on the abstract side. In our example, we might look at Bourdieu’s Theory of Cultural Capital to explore how teachers’ backgrounds and resources affect their ability to effectively manage and adapt to the new education policy in their classrooms.
Micro-level theories
These theories focus on individual or small group interactions and are often concerned with the day-to-day experiences of individuals. In our example, we might look at Lipsky’s theory of street-level bureaucrats. This theory emphasises how teachers, as frontline implementers of the policy, use their discretion in day-to-day decision-making, which can lead to different interpretations and applications of the policy in different classrooms. This theory is crucial for understanding the real-world impact of the policy as it is filtered through the actions and judgments of individual teachers.
So, can you see how there are clear distinctions between each of those? They each operate at different levels of analysis: grand theories offer broad, overarching frameworks that explain large social structures; mid-range theories zoom in to explain specific social processes or phenomena; and micro-level theories focus on the fine details of individual interactions and everyday experiences.
Combining different levels of theory
One of the most effective ways to use theory in social science research is to combine grand theories with mid-range and micro-level theories. This approach allows you to take advantage of the broad perspective offered by grand theories while also incorporating the detailed, context-specific insights provided by more focused theories.
For example, like above - if you’re studying how teachers manage the rollout of a new education policy, you might start with a grand theory like Conflict Theory to understand the broader power dynamics between policymakers, administrators, and teachers. You could then use a mid-range theory like Bourdieu’s Theory of Cultural Capital to explore how teachers’ backgrounds and resources affect their ability to implement the new policy. Finally, you might draw on a micro-level theory like Lipsky’s Street-Level Bureaucracy to examine how individual teachers use their discretion in daily decision-making, shaping the real-world impact of the policy in their classrooms.
This layered approach is kind of like viewing society through a wide lens before progressively narrowing the focus to understand the nuances at play, much like starting with a map of an entire city, then zooming in on neighborhoods, and finally exploring specific streets to get a complete picture.
So, grand theories offer a broad, conceptual lens that can enrich your research and provide insights into the larger forces at play in society. However, they are most effective when used in conjunction with more specific theories that address the nuances of particular social phenomena. Theory is not a one-size-fits-all solution. It’s a set of tools you can adapt and combine to suit your research needs.
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